José Rizal in the 19th Century Context
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Introduction
José Protasio Rizal Mercado y Alonso
Realonda (1861-1896) emerged as one of the most significant figures in
Philippine history during a period of profound social, political, and economic
transformation. Born into the complex colonial
landscape of 19th-century Philippines, Rizal's life and works were inextricably
shaped by the Spanish colonial system, the rise of Filipino nationalism, and
the broader intellectual currents of European Enlightenment. His contributions as a
physician, writer, linguist, and social reformer cannot be understood without
examining the intricate historical context that molded his worldview and
revolutionary consciousness.
The 19th Century Philippine Colonial Landscape
Political Structure and Spanish Colonial Administration
The 19th century Philippines operated
under a centralized Spanish colonial government headed by the Governor-General,
who served as the king's representative in all state and religious matters. The political landscape was
characterized by an inefficient and corrupt administrative system where the
Governor-General wielded absolute powers. The Royal Audiencia served as
the highest court in the land and functioned as an advisory body to the
Governor-General, possessing the power to check and report abuses of the
colonial administration.
Provincial governance was managed
through alcaldias led by alcalde mayors who governed the provinces as civil governors. This system created multiple
layers of bureaucracy that often facilitated corruption and abuse of power,
particularly affecting the indigenous Filipino population who had no
representation in the colonial government.
Social Stratification and Racial Hierarchy
The Spanish colonial period
established a rigid social hierarchy based on racial and ethnic distinctions. At the apex were the
Peninsulares - Spaniards born in Spain who held the highest positions in
government and church. Below them were the Insulares,
full-blood Spaniards born in the Philippines, followed by various mestizo
groups including Mestizo de Español (Spanish-Filipino ancestry) and Mestizo de
Sangley (Chinese-Filipino ancestry).
The Principalía represented the
educated middle class who were exposed to Spanish liberal and European
nationalist ideas. This class included the gobernadorcillo (later
called capitán municipal), tenientes de justicia, and cabezas de barangay who
governed local districts. The distinction of being part
of the principalía was originally hereditary, but a royal decree dated December
20, 1863, made possible the creation of new principales under defined criteria,
including proficiency in the Castilian language.
At the bottom of the social pyramid were the Indios - the term used to define native indigenous peoples in all Spanish American and Asian possessions. This racial classification system created deep social divisions and institutionalized discrimination that would profoundly influence Rizal's social consciousness.
Economic Transformation and the Decline of the Galleon Trade
The 19th century marked a significant economic transition in
the Philippines. The Manila-Acapulco galleon
trade, which had been the economic lifeline for Spanish colonizers for over two
centuries, began its decline in the late 18th century. The last galleon arrived in Manila in 1815, and
by the mid-1830s, Manila was opened to foreign merchants almost without
restriction.
The gradual elimination of the
galleon trade monopoly stimulated new economic opportunities. The demand for Philippine
sugar and abaca (hemp) grew considerably, and the volume of exports to Europe
expanded further after the completion of the Suez Canal in 1869. Between 1855-1873, Spain
opened new ports in the Philippines to foreign trade, facilitating the export
of crops. By the late 19th century,
tobacco, abaca, and sugar became the main export commodities.
This economic transformation resulted
in the emergence of a new entrepreneurial class, often consisting of
enterprising Chinese-Filipino mestizos who established haciendas of coffee,
hemp, and sugar. Some families that gained
prominence during this period continued to play important roles in Philippine
economics and politics well into the modern era.
The Friar Land System and Agricultural Economy
The Catholic Church, particularly the
Spanish religious orders (Dominicans, Augustinians, and Recollects),
accumulated vast landholdings throughout the colonial period. These friar lands comprised approximately
one-tenth of all improved lands in the islands. The existence of friar lands traced back to the
early Spanish colonial period when conquistadors were awarded lands in the form
of haciendas for their loyalty to the Spanish crown.
The Inquilinato system governed
agricultural relationships on these estates. Inquilinos who rented land for fixed annual
amounts were expected to provide personal services to the landlords and could
face expulsion for non-compliance. This system created a complex web of economic
dependency that extended from Spanish friars to Filipino tenant farmers.
Rizal's family directly experienced
the consequences of this system through their involvement with the Hacienda de
Calamba. Originally owned by a Spaniard
who donated the land to Jesuit friars, the hacienda eventually passed to
Dominican control in 1803. Rizal's family became principal inquilinos of
approximately 380 hectares, cultivating sugarcane as their main crop.
Rizal's Family Background and Early Influences
Family Heritage and Social Standing
José Rizal was born on June 19, 1861,
in Calamba, Laguna, to Francisco Mercado Rizal y Alejandro and Teodora Alonso y
Quintos. His family belonged to the
principalía class and was considered one of the most affluent families in
Calamba. The Rizal family consisted of
eleven children, with José being the seventh child.
The family's prosperity was based in
agriculture, leasing land from the Dominican hacienda. They owned a large stone
house, a carriage, and maintained the largest private library in Calamba,
demonstrating their wealth and social prominence. Dona Teodora managed a general
store and operated a flour mill while actively participating in community
affairs.
Rizal's ancestry reflected the
diverse heritage characteristic of the Philippines during this period. His Chinese roots traced back
to Domingo Lamco, who later adopted the surname 'Mercado'. On his mother's side, Teodora's
lineage was believed to descend from Lakandula, the last native king of Tondo,
showcasing a blend of Filipino and Chinese ancestry.
The family name "Rizal" was
adopted relatively recently in their genealogy. In 1849, Governor-General
Narciso Claveria ordered all Filipinos to select surnames from an official list. Don Francisco chose
"Rizal," derived from the original form "Ricial," meaning
"growing again" and referring to new growth in fields.
Educational Foundation and Early Intellectual Development
Rizal's early education began in
Calamba and Biñan, where knowledge was imparted through traditional
memory-based methods. Despite being physically weak
as a child, his intellectual prowess allowed him to excel academically. The scenic beauty of Calamba,
situated between Laguna de Bay and Mt. Makiling, left lasting impressions on
his young mind and contributed to shaping his character.
At age eleven, Rizal entered the Ateneo
Municipal de Manila, though his admission faced initial obstacles. Father Magin Ferrando, the
college registrar, initially refused to admit him due to late registration and
his frail, sickly appearance. Fortunately, with help from
Manuel Xeres Burgos, nephew of Fr. Jose Burgos (one of the martyred priests
known as GomBurZa), Rizal was finally admitted to Ateneo.
The Ateneo de Manila, established by
Spanish Jesuits as the Escuela Municipal de Manila in 1859, became the Ateneo
Municipal de Manila in 1865. This institution provided
Rizal with a rigorous Jesuit education that emphasized intellectual discipline,
moral formation, and academic excellence.
The Secularization Movement and Religious Controversy
Historical Background of the Secularization Controversy
The 19th century Philippines
witnessed intense religious conflicts between regular and secular clergy that
would profoundly impact Filipino nationalism. The secularization movement
aimed to transfer parish administration from regular friars (members of
religious orders) to secular priests (diocesan clergy not bound by religious
vows).
As early as 1774, Archbishop Basilio
Santa Justa issued a royal decree ordering the transfer of parochial
administration from regular friars to secular priests. This decree provided for the
secularization of all parishes due to conflicts over episcopal authority. Since there were insufficient
secular priests to fill vacancies, the Archbishop hastened the ordination of
Filipino seculars.
The regular clergy resented this
move, considering Filipinos unfit for the priesthood. The controversy intensified
when Jesuits returned to the Philippines in 1861 after their earlier expulsion. They regained control over
Mindanao parishes from the Recollects, who were then granted parishes in Manila
and Cavite by the colonial government to appease their loss. This arrangement displaced
Filipino secular priests who had been administering these parishes, clearly
demonstrating Spanish preference for their own regular priests over Filipino
clergy.
Key Figures in the Secularization Movement
The movement was led by prominent Filipino
secular priests who advocated for equal rights among clergy and challenged
Spanish friar dominance. Father Pedro Pelaez emerged as
an early leader, working alongside Father Mariano Gomes to advance the secular
cause. Despite impediments to their
plans, they published anonymous articles in Madrid-based newspapers defending
the capacity of native priests and their loyalty to Spain.
José Apolonio Burgos became the most
prominent successor to Pelaez, regarded as the intellectual leader who would
fulfill the interests of secular native clergy. Burgos's intelligence and
influence were reflected in his academic achievements, completing five degrees
and two doctorates at a young age. His prominence extended to Spain,
such that when Governor-General Carlos María de la Torre arrived from Spain, he
invited Burgos to sit beside him during the inaugural procession - a place
traditionally reserved for the archbishop.
The Cavite Mutiny and Its Consequences
On January 20, 1872, approximately
200 Filipino military personnel and laborers at Fort San Felipe, the Spanish
arsenal in Cavite, staged an uprising. The mutiny was triggered by the Spanish
government's removal of privileges previously enjoyed by arsenal workers,
including exemption from tribute payments and forced labor (polo y servicio).
The mutiny was quickly suppressed,
but Spanish authorities under the reactionary Governor-General Rafael de
Izquierdo magnified the incident. They used it as justification to crack down on
Filipinos calling for governmental reform and to eliminate the perceived threat
posed by Filipino secular priests.
The Execution of GomBurZa
Three prominent secular priests -
Mariano Gómez, José Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora - were arrested and charged with
masterminding the Cavite Mutiny. After a brief military
tribunal trial conducted in secrecy, they were found guilty of treason and
sedition. On February 17, 1872, the
three priests, collectively known as GomBurZa, were publicly executed by
garrote at Bagumbayan (now Rizal Park).
Father Mariano Gomes, born on August
2, 1799, in Santa Cruz, Manila, was 73 years old at the time of execution. He was known for his anti-Spanish sentiment and
was well-loved by parishioners in Bacoor whom he served faithfully. Father José Burgos was 35 years old, and Father
Jacinto Zamora was 37 years old at their execution.
The Archbishop of Manila refused to
defrock the priests and ordered church bells throughout the archipelago to toll
in honor of their deaths. Approximately 40,000 Filipinos
from provinces including Bulacan, Pampanga, Cavite, and Laguna gathered to
witness the execution. The martyrdom of these three
priests became a catalyst for Filipino nationalism and deeply influenced the
next generation of reformists and revolutionaries.
Rizal's European Education and Intellectual Development
Medical Studies and Specialization in Ophthalmology
Although Rizal's initial intention
for going to Europe was to complete his medical education and become an
ophthalmologist, his European sojourn encompassed much broader intellectual
pursuits. In the 19th century,
ophthalmology was already a separate and dynamic specialty in Europe, though
formal residency training programs did not yet exist. Practitioners became
ophthalmologists through personalized tutelage and supervision under well-known
professors.
Rizal trained under some of Europe's
most distinguished ophthalmologists. He went to Paris to study
under Dr. Louis de Wecker (also known as Louis von Wecker), a famous
oculoplastic surgeon, where he served as an assistant at de Wecker's clinic for
four months from November 1885 to February 1886. He subsequently proceeded to
Heidelberg, where he trained under Dr. Otto Becker.
This medical training was not merely
academic but practical, involving direct patient care and surgical assistance. Rizal's medical expertise
would later prove valuable during his exile in Dapitan, where he established a
medical practice and performed successful operations, including cataract
surgery on his own mother.
Linguistic and Scientific Research
During his European years, Rizal
demonstrated remarkable linguistic abilities and conducted extensive research
into Philippine history and culture. While in Berlin, he immersed
himself in the Royal Library's Philippine collection, studying missionary
chronicles and reports from various world travelers who had written about the
archipelago.
Rizal was influenced by Wilhelm von
Humboldt's studies on the Kawi language and theories about linguistic
diversity, which encouraged him to make his own language comparisons and
grammar attempts dedicated to Tagalog. He also engaged with Alexander
von Humboldt's theory of civilization through Theodor Waitz's
"Anthropologie der Naturvölker" (Anthropology of Indigenous Peoples).
The Annotation of Morga's Work
One of Rizal's most significant
scholarly contributions was his annotation of Antonio de Morga's "Sucesos
de las Islas Filipinas". In 1889, Rizal discovered a
copy of Morga's 1609 work in the British Museum. Morga, who served as
Lieutenant-Governor in the late 16th century, had written an eight-chapter
account of the Philippines covering the period from Governor-General Legazpi in
1565 to Acuña in 1606.
Rizal's annotations aimed to create a critical work on Philippine history that countered Spanish colonial narratives. He worked to publish these annotations initially through Antonio Regidor but eventually published them himself through Garnier Hermanos in Paris. Through his annotations, Rizal systematically refuted Spanish claims about Filipino civilization, demonstrating that pre-colonial Filipinos had sophisticated social structures, textile industries using abaca, and established foreign relations with China, Japan, and Cambodia.
Rizal's Literary Works and Social Criticism
Noli Me Tángere (1887)
Rizal's first novel, "Noli Me
Tángere," published in Berlin in 1887, served as a scathing critique of
Spanish colonial society. The title, derived from Latin
meaning "touch me not," referenced the Biblical passage where Jesus
told Mary Magdalene not to touch him as he had not yet ascended to his Father.
The novel provided a balanced account
of colonial changes and abuses, particularly those resulting from the Spanish
Revolution of 1868 and the opening of direct steamship travel between Manila
and Madrid through the Suez Canal in 1869. These developments led to the
establishment of a Spanish-directed "spoils system" that transferred
increasing amounts of land and wealth to Spanish colonists and corrupt locals.
Through the character of Crisóstomo
Ibarra and the tragic story of his family, Rizal illustrated the systematic
oppression faced by Filipino families under Spanish rule. The novel exposed the corrupt
practices of Spanish friars, the abuse of power by colonial officials, and the
social injustices perpetrated against the Filipino people.
El Filibusterismo (1891)
Rizal's second novel, "El
Filibusterismo," published in Ghent, Belgium in 1891, continued his
critique of Spanish colonialism with a darker, more revolutionary tone. This sequel focused on themes
of revenge and social reform through the character of Simoun, who sought
justice for the oppressed.
The novel was dedicated to the memory
of the three martyred priests - GomBurZa - acknowledging their sacrifice and
the symbolic weight their deaths held for the Filipino people. In his dedication, Rizal
wrote: "The Government, by enshrouding your trial in mystery and pardoning
your co-accused, has suggested that some mistake was committed when your fate
was decided; and the whole of the Philippines, in paying homage to your memory
and calling you martyrs, totally rejects your guilt".
Both novels have been widely regarded as foundational works
because they distilled the failures and promises of an incipient Filipino
national identity. Since Spanish was never spoken
as a majority language in the Philippines, these works reached Filipino readers
primarily through translations.
Scientific and Psychiatric Contributions
Despite specializing in
ophthalmology, Rizal made significant intellectual contributions to psychiatry
through both scholarly and fictional publications. In 1895, he completed a study
entitled "The Treatment of the Bewitched" (La Curación de los
Hechizados), investigating supernatural attitudes toward psychiatric disorders
in the Philippines.
The study analyzed folk beliefs
around 'bewitchment,' a condition diagnosed when traditional healers
(herbolarios) could not determine the basis of an illness. Rizal identified two forms of
bewitchment: mangkukulam (witch) and manggagaway (sorcerer), describing how
these beliefs stigmatized individuals and served as scapegoats for community
problems.
Rizal advocated for rational and compassionate approaches to mental health, arguing that diagnosis and treatment should be "consistent with modern theories" based on psychopathology. He emphasized the potential of psychotherapy while rejecting the regressive and violent methods employed by traditional healers.
The Propaganda Movement and Reform Advocacy
La Solidaridad and Filipino Nationalism
The Propaganda Movement emerged from
Filipino students studying in Europe during the 1880s. These young intellectuals,
exposed to liberal European ideas and nationalist movements, began advocating
for reforms in the Philippines through various publications. The movement's most notable
publication was the biweekly newspaper "La Solidaridad".
Rizal played a crucial role in the
Propaganda Movement, contributing articles and advocating for peaceful reforms
rather than violent revolution. The movement's goals included
representation in the Spanish Cortes, Filipino priests instead of Spanish
friars in parishes, freedom of assembly and speech, and equal rights before the
law for both Filipino and Spanish plaintiffs.
However, colonial authorities in the
Philippines did not favor these reforms, while Spanish intellectuals like
Morayta, Unamuno, and Pi y Margall endorsed them. In 1890, a rivalry developed between Rizal and
Marcelo H. del Pilar for leadership of La Solidaridad and the reform movement
in Europe, with the majority of expatriates supporting del Pilar's leadership.
La Liga Filipina
Upon returning to the Philippines in
1892, Rizal established La Liga Filipina, a peaceful organization aimed at
fostering institutional change. The Liga's constitution
outlined five primary aims: (a) to unite the whole archipelago; (b) mutual
protection in case of trouble and need; (c) defense against violence and
injustice; (d) development of education, agriculture, and commerce; and (e)
study and implementation of reforms.
Rizal envisioned La Liga Filipina as
an instrument for economic advancement, believing that prosperity would make
the Philippines worthy of political liberties. He declared: "My dream
was my country's prosperity," emphasizing economic development as a
foundation for eventual independence.
The organization's constitution provided mechanisms for mutual assistance among members, mandating that Liga members could "invoke the full assistance of the Liga Filipina" in cases of trouble, affront, or injustice. It also established procedures for fair treatment and justice, ensuring that no member would be judged without opportunity for defense.
Economic and Social Context of the Late 19th Century
Biological Standard of Living
Research using data from 23,000
Filipino soldiers enlisted by the U.S. military between 1901 and 1913 reveals concerning
trends about the biological standard of living during Rizal's era. The study found a decline of more than 1.5 cm
(0.6 inches) in the height of soldiers born between the early 1870s and late
1880s.
This decline occurred during a period
of expanding commercial activity in cash crop production for export. The average height of soldiers born in the
mid-1870s was 159.3 cm (62.7 inches), which was very short even for that time
period. Heights did not regain the level of the 1870s until
the late 1930s and early 1940s.
The low biological standard of living
was not due solely to the tropical disease environment, as greater average
heights were recorded for the same period in other parts of Asia with similar
climates. This suggests that Spanish colonial policies
and economic exploitation significantly impacted Filipino health and nutrition
during this period.
Export Economy and Agricultural Changes
The late 19th century transformation
from galleon trade to export agriculture fundamentally altered Philippine
economic structures. The growth of commercial
agriculture resulted in the appearance of new social classes alongside
traditional landholdings of the church and rice estates of pre-Spanish nobility.
Sugar, abaca (hemp), and tobacco became
the Philippines' main export commodities. The country engaged
extensively in international trade, becoming known worldwide for these products. This economic transformation
created opportunities for enterprising individuals, particularly
Chinese-Filipino mestizos who established haciendas and accumulated wealth.
However, this economic transition also intensified social inequalities and created new forms of economic dependency. The expansion of cash crop production often came at the expense of food production and local welfare, contributing to the declining biological standards observed during this period.
The Path to Revolution and Martyrdom
Rizal's Return and Final Years
Despite his advocacy for peaceful
reform, Rizal found himself increasingly implicated in revolutionary activities. In 1896, the Katipunan, a militant secret
society founded by Andrés Bonifacio, had evolved into a full-blown
revolutionary movement. Although Rizal had volunteered to serve as a
doctor in Cuba to treat yellow fever victims and received permission from
Governor-General Ramón Blanco, he was arrested en route to Spain.
Rizal was imprisoned in Barcelona on
October 6, 1896, and sent back to Manila to stand trial for his alleged
involvement in the revolution through his association with Katipunan members. During his imprisonment in Fort Santiago, he
issued a manifesto disavowing the current revolution and declaring that
Filipino education and achievement of national identity were prerequisites to
freedom.
Trial and Execution
Rizal was tried before a
court-martial for rebellion, sedition, and conspiracy. Despite pleading innocence, he was convicted on
all charges and sentenced to death. The Spanish friars, led by
Archbishop Bernardino Nozaleda, had pressured Queen-Regent Maria Cristina to
replace the sympathetic Governor-General Blanco with Camilo de Polavieja, thus
sealing Rizal's fate.
On December 30, 1896, at 7:03 AM,
Rizal was executed by firing squad at Bagumbayan field. His final words were
reportedly "Consummatum est" (It is finished). That afternoon, his sister
Narcisa discovered a newly dug grave at Paco Cemetery and marked it with a
marble plaque bearing Rizal's initials in reverse.
On the night before his execution, Rizal reportedly wrote his final poem, later known as "Mi último adiós" (My Last Farewell). His execution became a catalyst for the Philippine Revolution, increasing opposition to Spanish colonial rule and inspiring future generations of Filipino nationalists.
Legacy and Historical Significance
Impact on Filipino Nationalism
Rizal's martyrdom had profound
effects on Filipino consciousness and nationalism. His execution provided impetus
to the revolution led by Emilio Aguinaldo, though complete independence was not
immediately achieved. The Spanish were unable to end
the rebellion, leading to negotiations that resulted in the Pact of
Biak-na-Bato in December 1897.
Rizal's writings and sacrifice inspired subsequent
generations of Filipino leaders and intellectuals. His novels were smuggled into
the Philippines despite being banned and were widely read. The impact of his ideas
extended beyond his lifetime, influencing the development of Filipino national
identity and the eventual achievement of independence.
Contemporary Relevance
Today, Rizal's works are mandatorily
taught in Filipino educational institutions, reflecting their continued
relevance to Philippine society. The Rizal Law, signed in 1956,
mandated the study of Rizal's life, works, and writings at all educational
levels to foster stronger nationalism during the post-World War II period.
Rizal's approach to social reform -
emphasizing education, peaceful advocacy, and intellectual discourse - remains
relevant to contemporary discussions about social justice and national
development. His belief that education and
economic prosperity were prerequisites for political freedom continues to
resonate in modern Philippine development strategies.
Conclusion:
José Rizal's life and works cannot be
understood apart from the complex 19th-century context that shaped his
worldview and revolutionary consciousness. Born into a period of profound
transformation in the Philippines - characterized by the decline of the galleon
trade, the rise of export agriculture, intensifying social conflicts between
Spanish colonizers and Filipino society, and the emergence of Filipino
nationalism - Rizal became both a product and catalyst of historical change.
His family's experience with the
friar land system, his exposure to the execution of GomBurZa, his European
education in the liberal intellectual atmosphere of the 1880s, and his direct
confrontation with Spanish colonial injustices all contributed to his
development as a reformist and ultimately, a martyr for Filipino independence.
Through his novels, scientific studies, and advocacy work, Rizal articulated a
vision of Filipino society that challenged Spanish colonial narratives while
proposing peaceful paths toward social and political reform.
The 19th-century Philippines provided
the crucible in which Rizal's ideas were forged - a period of economic
transformation, social upheaval, religious controversy, and emerging national
consciousness that would ultimately lead to the Philippine Revolution and the
birth of the modern Filipino nation. Rizal's legacy as a writer, scientist, and
social reformer continues to inspire discussions about nationalism, social
justice, and peaceful advocacy for change, making his 19th-century context
essential for understanding both his historical significance and contemporary
relevance.
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