Atkinson's and Shiffrin's Information Processing Theory | Free LET Reviewer and Drill

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Lesson 31: Richard Atkinson's and Richard Shiffrin’s Information Processing Theory

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Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin were psychologists who created a model of how the human mind works like a computer. They believed that learning happens through a process of taking in information, doing something with it, storing it, and retrieving it when you need it. Their theory is called Information Processing Theory because it explains how the mind processes information, similar to how a computer does.

Your brain is like a computer. It receives information, processes it, saves it, and pulls it back out when you need it.

The Four Main Processes of Learning

According to Atkinson and Shiffrin, learning happens through four main steps:

• Encoding – You take in information from the environment through your senses.
• Storage – Your brain stores that information in memory.
• Retrieval – You bring the information back to mind when you need it.
• Memory – This is the ability to keep information stored so you can use it later.

When you see a new word, your brain takes it in (encoding), saves it (storage), keeps it in your mind (memory), and later you can remember and use that word (retrieval).

The Three Stages of Human Memory

Atkinson and Shiffrin said that memory works in three different stages. Each stage holds information for a different amount of time and works differently.

Stage 1: Sensory Memory

Time it lasts: 1–3 seconds

Sensory memory is an information store that holds an exact copy of stimuli for a very short period of time.

• Color of an object you just saw
• Shape of something
• Sound like a horn blowing
• Smell you just noticed
• Feel of something you touched

Sensory memory is the immediate impression your senses give you. When you glance at something, your sensory memory captures exactly what you see for just a moment. Then it disappears unless you pay attention to it.

• Example: You walk past a billboard for 2 seconds. Your sensory memory captures exactly what the billboard looks like. But if you do not focus on it, that image disappears from your mind after 3 seconds. If you had looked at it carefully, the information would move to short-term memory.

Stage 2: Short-Term Memory (STM)

Time it lasts: 18 seconds or less

Also called: Working Memory or Rehearsal

Short-term memory is the information store that retains information as we consciously work on it.

• Holds information you are actively thinking about right now
• Holds only a small amount of information (about 5–9 items)
• Information stays only if you think about it or repeat it

Short-term memory is like the screen on your computer. It shows what you are working on right now. If you stop working on it or do not pay attention, it disappears.

• Example: When someone gives you a phone number and you repeat it to yourself over and over until you can dial it, you are using short-term memory and rehearsal.
• Another Example:  A teacher writes a math problem on the board. You look at it and hold the numbers in your mind while you work through the problem. You are using short-term memory. Once you write down the answer and move on, the numbers disappear from short-term memory unless you rehearse them.

Stage 3: Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Time it lasts: Minutes to lifetime (permanent)

Long-term memory is an information store that is permanent, or relatively permanent, in nature.

• Facts you know (capitals of countries, multiplication tables)
• Skills you have learned (reading, riding a bike, playing instruments)
• Personal experiences (memories of your childhood, your last birthday)
• Concepts and ideas you understand

Long-term memory is like the hard drive of a computer. It stores huge amounts of information for a very long time, possibly forever. This is where all your knowledge and experiences live.

Take note: Information in long-term memory can still be forgotten, especially if you do not use it or review it.

• Example: You learned to read in first grade. That skill went into your long-term memory. You still know how to read today, years later. You can use this skill anytime you need it.

How Memory Stages Work Together

Information moves through the three stages like this: You see or hear something new (sensory memory). You pay attention to it and think about it (short-term memory). You practice it, understand it, and connect it to things you already know (long-term memory). When you need that information later, you bring it back from long-term memory to use it.

• Think of it like mail being delivered. Mail arrives at your door (sensory memory). You open it and read it (short-term memory). You file it in a cabinet to keep (long-term memory). When you need that information, you go to your cabinet and get it back.

Forgetting

Forgetting is the inability to recall information that you previously learned. Even though information is in long-term memory, you sometimes cannot bring it back to your mind. 

There are three main causes of forgetting.

1. Retrieval Failure

You know the information, but you cannot find it or recall it at that moment. It is like losing your keys. The keys are still in your house somewhere, but you cannot find them right now. The information is in your brain, but you cannot bring it to mind.

• Example: You know your friend's phone number, but right now you cannot remember it. Later, something reminds you and you remember it perfectly.

2. Decay Theory

Unused memories slowly fade away, like a photograph left in the sun. If you do not use information, it deteriorates over time.

• Example: You learned Spanish in school 10 years ago but have not used it since. Now you cannot remember most of the words. They have decayed because you have not used them.

3. Interference Theory

New information gets in the way of remembering old information, or old information confuses you about new information.

• Example: You learned French years ago. Now you are learning Spanish. Sometimes when trying to speak Spanish, you mix in French words. The two languages interfere with each other. Or you might confuse two similar math formulas because they are similar and one interferes with the other.

Another thing you should master is the difference between retention and interference:

Retention - is your ability to recall or recognize information you have learned. Strong retention means you can bring the information back to mind easily.

• Retention is how well you can remember something. Good retention means you can easily recall what you learned.

Interference - is when one piece of learning blocks or interferes with another piece of learning. Interference is when two similar things get mixed up in your mind. The more similar they are, the more interference there is.

• Example: If you learn Spanish and then French, the languages interfere. If you memorize the formulas for area and perimeter, they might interfere because they are similar.

Transfer

Transfer is when something you previously learned influences how you learn or perform something new. You apply knowledge from one situation to a different situation.

Four Types of Transfer:

1. Lateral Transfer - you can perform a new task at about the same level as a similar task you already know. 

• Example: You know how to multiply numbers. Now you learn to multiply fractions. Both involve multiplication, so you can do multiplication of fractions about as well as you do regular multiplication. The difficulty level is similar.

2. Vertical Transfer - earlier (previous) learning helps you learn more advanced or complex skills.

• Example: Learning addition helps you learn multiplication. Learning basic basketball skills helps you learn complex basketball plays. Learning to walk helps a child learn to run.

3. Specific Transfer - you apply a specific skill, fact, or rule you learned in one situation to a similar situation.

• Example: You learned how to solve quadratic equations in math class. On a test, you use the exact same process to solve similar quadratic equations. You learn the capital of France is Paris. You use this fact when doing a geography quiz about European capitals.

4. General Transfer - you apply broad principles you learned to situations that are very different or completely new. You take a general principle you learned and use it in completely different situations. It is not the exact same thing, but the principle applies.

• Example: You learn the principle that "hard work leads to success" in school. You use this principle in sports, in your career, and in personal relationships. You learn the scientific method in science class. You apply the scientific method to solving everyday problems at home. You learn principles of teamwork in a sports class. You apply those principles when working on a group project for history.

💡Remember

Information Processing Theory: How the mind works like a computer, taking in, storing, and retrieving information

Encoding: Taking in information through your senses

Storage: Keeping information in memory

Retrieval: Bringing information back from memory when you need it

Sensory Memory: Holds exact copy of stimuli for 1–3 seconds

Short-Term Memory (STM): Holds information you are actively thinking about for 18 seconds or less

Long-Term Memory (LTM): Stores information relatively permanently

Forgetting: Inability to recall previously learned information

Retrieval Failure: Knowing something but not being able to remember it at that moment

Decay Theory: Memories fade when not used

Interference Theory: New or old learning blocks other learning

Retention: Ability to recall or recognize learned information

Transfer: Using previously learned information in new situations

Lateral Transfer: Performing new task at same difficulty level

Vertical Transfer: Using basic learning to learn advanced skills

Specific Transfer: Using same skill in similar situation

General Transfer: Applying broad principles to different situations

Information Processing Theory Quiz: click here

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